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Contents

1 The Reformation: An Introduction 1 The Cry for Reform 2 The Concept of "Reformation" 5 The Lutheran Reformation 6 The Reformed Church 7 The Radical Reformation (Anabaptism) 9 The Catholic Reformation 11 The Importance of Printing 12 The Use of the Vernacular in Theological Debates 15 The Social Context of the Reformation 16 The Religious Concerns of the Reformers: A Brief Overview 20 2 Christianity in the Late Middle Ages 23 The Growth of Popular Religion 23 The Rise in Anti-Clericalism 24 The Rise of Doctrinal Pluralism 27 A Crisis of Authority within the Church 30 An English Case Study: Lollardy 32 3 Humanism and the Reformation 35 The Concept of "Renaissance" 36 The Concept of "Humanism" 37 Classical Scholarship and Philology 38 The New Philosophy of the Renaissance 38 Kristeller's View of Humanism 39 Ad Fontes - Back to the Fountainhead 40 Northern European Humanism 41 The Northern European Reception of the Italian Renaissance 41 The Ideals of Northern European Humanism 43 Eastern Swiss Humanism 43 French Legal Humanism 44 Erasmus of Rotterdam 46 The Critique of the Vulgate Text 48 Editions of Patristic Writers 50 Humanism and the Reformation - An Evaluation 51 Humanism and the Swiss Reformation 52 Humanism and the Wittenberg Reformation 53 Tensions between the Reformation and Humanism 55 4 Scholasticism and the Reformation 59 "Scholasticism" Defined 60 Scholasticism and the Universities 62 Types of Scholasticism 63 Realism versus Nominalism 63 "Pelagianism" and "Augustinianism" 65 The Via Moderna 67 The Schola Augustiniana Moderna 69 The Impact of Medieval Scholasticism upon the Reformation 70 Luther's Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 71 Calvin's Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 72 5 The Reformers: A Biographical Introduction 75 Martin Luther (1483-1546) 76 Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) 81 Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) 83 Martin Bucer (1491-1551) 84 John Calvin (1509-64) 85 6 The Return to the Bible 91 Scripture in the Middle Ages 92 The Concept of "Tradition" 92 The Vulgate Translation of the Bible 94 The Medieval Vernacular Versions of Scripture 94 The Humanists and the Bible 95 The Bible and the Protestant Reformation 97 The Canon of Scripture 97 The Authority of Scripture 98 The Role of Tradition 100 Methods of Interpreting Scripture 102 The Right to Interpret Scripture 106 The Translation of Scripture 110 The Catholic Response: Trent on Scripture and Tradition 112 7 The Doctrine of Justification by Faith 115 A Foundational Theme: Redemption through Christ 115 Justification and Martin Luther's Theological Breakthrough 117 Luther's Early Views on Justification 118 Luther's Discovery of the "Righteousness of God" 119 The Nature of Justifying Faith 121 Consequences of Luther's Doctrine of Justification 122 The Concept of "Forensic Justification" 125 Divergences among the Reformers on Justification 128 Justification and the Swiss Reformation 128 Later Developments: Bucer and Calvin on Justification 130 Theological Diplomacy: "Double Justification" 132 The Catholic Response: Trent on Justification 133 The Nature of Justification 134 The Nature of Justifying Righteousness 135 The Nature of Justifying Faith 136 The Assurance of Salvation 137 8 The Doctrine of the Church 141 The Background to the Reformation Debates: The Donatist Controversy 143 The Context of the Reformation Views on the Church 146 Luther on the Nature of the Church 147 The Radical View of the Church 149 Tensions within Luther's Doctrine of the Church 151 Calvin on the Nature of the Church 152 The Two Marks of the Church 153 The Structures of the Church 154 Calvin on the Church and Consistory 155 Calvin on the Role of the Church 157 The Debate over the Catholicity of the Church 158 The Council of Trent on the Church 161 9 The Doctrine of the Sacraments 163 The Background to the Sacramental Debates 163 The Sacraments and the Promises of Grace 165 Luther on the Sacraments 168 Luther on the Real Presence 171 Luther on Infant Baptism 172 Zwingli on the Sacraments 174 Zwingli on the Real Presence 176 Zwingli on Infant Baptism 179 Luther versus Zwingli: A Summary and Evaluation 181 Anabaptist Views on the Sacraments 183 Calvin on the Sacraments 185 The Catholic Response: Trent on the Sacraments 187 10 The Doctrine of Predestination 191 The Background to the Reformation Debates over Predestination 191 Zwingli on the Divine Sovereignty 193 Melanchthon's Changing Views on Predestination 195 Calvin on Predestination 197 Predestination in Later Reformed Theology 202 11 The Political Thought of the Reformation 207 The Radical Reformation and Secular Authority 207 Luther's Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms 210 Zwingli on the State and Magistrate 216 Bucer on Magistrate and Ministry 218 Calvin on Magistrate and Ministry 219 12 The Religious Ideas of the English Reformation 223 The Social Role of Religious Ideas: Germany and England 223 English Humanism 226 The Origins of the English Reformation: Henry Viii 227 The Consolidation of the English Reformation: Edward vi to Elizabeth I 230 Justification by Faith in the English Reformation 233 The Real Presence in the English Reformation 236 13 The Diffusion of the Thought of the Reformation 241 The Physical Agencies of Diffusion 241 The Vernacular 241 Books 242 The Interchange of People 243 The Diffusion of Ideas: The Key Texts 244 The Catechisms 244 Confessions of Faith 246 Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion 247 14 The Impact of Reformation Thought upon History 253 An Affirmative Attitude Toward the World 254 The Protestant Work Ethic 256 Reformation Thought and the Origins of Capitalism 258 Reformation Thought and Political Change 261 Reformation Thought and the Emergence of the Natural Sciences 263 Reformation Ecclesiologies and the Modern World 266 Conclusion 267

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